The Messiah Confrontation: Pharisees Versus Sadducees and the Death of Jesus -- A Review (Israel Knohl)
THE MESSIAH CONFRONTATION: Pharisees Versus Sadducees and the Death of Jesus. By Israel Knohl. Translated by David Maisel. Philadelphia, PA: The Jewish Publication Society/Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2022. Xiii + 201 pages.
Christianity,
as a religious movement, emerged out of first-century Judaism. It draws its
foundations from first-century Judaism and the biblical tradition Christians
call the Old Testament. In fact, in its origins, it was primarily a Jewish sect
that eventually came to be dominated by nonJews. Over time it became
commonplace on the part of many Christians to forget the Jewish origins of the
Christian faith, and that has been to the detriment of Christianity because not
only did Christians lose touch with their origins this led to persecution and
oppression of Jews, who were understood to be Christ-killers and opponents of
Jesus’ message. This fed anti-Jewish sentiment and antisemitism, all of which
have had horrific effects on the Jewish people. It also resulted in Christians misinterpreting
and misunderstanding the mission and message of Jesus and other early Christian
leaders including Paul. Nowhere is this more true than the way many Christians
talk about the Pharisees (who are the forebearers of rabbinic Judaism). So, could
it be that Jesus was much closer to the Pharisees than we tend to think? Could
it be that it was the Sadducees, an aristocratic priestly party at odds with
the Pharisees over messianic ideas and the resurrection, that contributed to
Jesus’ death? So, is it possible for Christians to learn from Jewish scholars
about Jesus and the promise of resurrection? If you read Israel Knohl’s book The Messiah Confrontation, the answer will be yes.
When I first saw a notice for
Knohl's The Messiah Confrontation I knew I wanted to read it. While many
Jews find conversations about Jesus difficult due to the history of Christian
persecution of Jews in the name of Jesus, I have found it extremely helpful to see
Jesus through Jewish eyes. Consider Amy Jill Levine for example, who has done a
wonderful job enlightening us about Jesus and his Jewish context. The good news
is that she’s not the only Jewish scholar who has engaged with the story of
Jesus. Knohl’s book is a perfect example of what I’m talking about.
I should note that Jesus isn't the
central focus of the book, at least not until the closing chapters. However,
what he writes before these chapters will help Christians understand the first-century
context of Jesus’ ministry as well as his execution by the Roman authorities in
collaboration with one particular religious party, the party that controlled
the Temple. Knohl's primary objective in this book is to explore the origins
and differences between the Pharisees and the Sadducees and then show how these
differences led to the trial of Jesus and the subsequent execution on the part
of the Romans. It is important to remember that crucifixion was a Roman
practice and at the time capital punishment was largely in the hands of the
Roman occupiers.
The author of this book, Israel
Knohl, is the Yehezkel Kaufmann Professor of Biblical Studies Emeritus at the
Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He is also the senior fellow at the Shalom
Hartman Institute in Jerusalem. He has taught at Harvard, Stanford, the University
of California Berkeley, and the University of Chicago Divinity School, and authored several books including The
Messiah before Jesus: The Suffering Servant of the Dead Sea Scrolls.
One of the central themes of The Messiah Confrontation concerns the origin and development of messianic
ideas within Judaism. Knohl points out that the birth of messianism is found in
the destruction of the first Temple in the 6th Century BCE. While messianism
was born at that moment, it also has earlier roots in differing views of the
monarchy (especially the Davidic monarchy). He notes that while some hoped for
the restoration of the Davidic monarchy that wasn’t true for everyone. He
discerns two streams of thinking about the monarchy that ultimately led to the
emergence of the two major first-century religious parties—the Pharisees and
Sadducees. One trajectory envisions the restoration of the Davidic monarchy and
takes its cues from Isaiah. The other stream centers on the Temple and
priesthood while drawing inspiration from the Torah. This stream eventuates
into the emergence of the Sadducees, which is a party that is both
anti-messianic and rooted in the primacy of the priesthood. The origins of the
two trajectories seem to have different origin points. Whereas Isaiah tends to
be pro-monarchy and speaks to situations related to the kingdom of Judah, we
see something different in the prophet Hosea who spoke to the situation in the
northern kingdom of Israel. While first Isaiah has a pro-monarchy perspective,
Hosea took a much more hostile view of the monarchy. Knohl suggests the same is
true of Deuteronomy, which he believes originated in the north and focuses more
on priesthood than the monarchy, especially a Davidic one.
Knohl connects the messianic
visions that stand behind Jesus with Isaiah and the Davidic monarchy (chapter
1). He then explores the anti-monarchy perspective that is expressed in the
prophetic ministry of Hosea (chapter 2). While the Northern Kingdom
disappeared, as time passed the perspective linked to Hosea made its way to the
southern kingdom and influenced certain later developments. I find his
discussion of Hosea especially illuminating as I had never thought about how
that book might provide the foundations for an anti-messianic trajectory that lead
to the Sadducees and eventually to the trial of Jesus.
Knohl weaves these two trajectories
throughout the book. Thus, in chapter 3 we return to the development of
messianic ideas within Judaism. While the origins of messianic theology lie
with Isaiah, we see a reconfiguration of this theology in the prophetic work of
Jeremiah. Extending Isaiah's messianic vision, Jeremiah envisions the emergence
of the "righteous Branch" who will rule over Israel. He does this even
as he publicly rebukes the last of the Davidic monarchs. With the exile comes a
new sensibility about who is anointed. Therefore, in Second Isaiah we see the
anointing move from the Davidic kings to Cyrus, who in many ways serves as the
hoped-for messiah.
That understanding is further
developed in chapter 4, which explores developments in a renewed Jewish presence
in Persian-controlled Israel where the Jewish people are permitted to rebuild
the Temple. While the Persians allowed for the restoration of the Jewish
religion they did not permit the restoration of the monarchy or anything that smacked
of monarchy. Therefore, messianic hopes were subsumed under a Temple/priesthood
sensibility. It was in this period that the Torah gained a central role in the
life of the people. This was especially true under the leadership of Ezra the
Scribe, who belonged to the second wave of migrants returning to Israel from Babylon.
Ezra was not a political leader but a teacher of the Law. As such, it is with
his leadership that a Torah-centered faith takes shape. You can see here the
possibilities of an emergent movement that leads to the emergence of the
Sadducees. Knohl continues his discussion of the growing distrust and loss of
expectation of a restored monarchy at this point. He notes that we see this
distrust present in Deuteronomy, as well as the other four books that make up the
Torah. He believes the four were compiled in Babylon and then combined with
Deuteronomy (chapter 5). Then in chapter 6, he explores how the biblical texts distinguish
between the human and divine when it comes to monarchy. What we see here is a
vision that is reflected in some of the Psalms that highlight monarchy and one
that does not (Torah). The latter insists that God transcends the bodily, and
the other allows more room for a connection.
Since the Resurrection is a central
distinguishing mark between the two parties explored here, Knohl moves from the
conversation about messianism to that of resurrection. He points out that the
idea of resurrection is found only in Daniel. Interestingly, and I had missed
this in earlier readings and teaching opportunities, Daniel says nothing about
the restoration of a Davidic monarchy (messianism). To gain an understanding of
the emergence of a doctrine of the resurrection, he explores how Jewish thought moves from the time of Ezra (5th century BCE) to the time of Antiochus IV
(2nd Century BCE). The latter period was one of great turmoil as Israel fell
under the control first of Alexander and then the various Greek successor
states. Interestingly, while Daniel introduces us to the resurrection,
something the Pharisees embrace, it tends toward espousing an anti-messianic
perspective, something the Sadducees embrace. However, there are elements of a
messianic perspective present that lacks an expectation of the restoration of
the Davidic line. Central here though is the introduction of a reward for
faithfulness. If Chapter 7 focuses on Daniel and the Resurrection, when we turn
to Chapter 8, we read of the "Sadducees' Denial of the Doctrine of
Reward." Knohl reminds us that the Sadducees "were an elite group of
priests" born to aristocratic families. Thus, they experienced life
differently than the non-elite. For the purposes of the overall discussion, Knohl
also reminds us that it is from this group that the High Priests emerge. (p.
101). In this chapter, we learn more about the Sadducees, a group that left no
writings and disappeared with the destruction of the Second Temple. Here in
chapter 8, Knohl takes note of the sayings of Antigonus of Sokho, who was a
disciple of the High Priest Simon the Just (2nd century BCE). Antigonus
insisted that observance of the Commandments should not be linked to a reward
from God. It is this rejection of a reward for observing the Commandments that
comes to define the Sadducees. This is connected with their rejection of
messianic expectations.
While the Pharisees and Sadducees
are the central figures (along with Jesus) in this study, Knohl also takes note
of the role of the Qumran community in the development of messianism during the
period before Jesus arrives on the scene, especially its "accounts of an
exalted and suffering messiah" (chapter 9). Although many Jews of this
period assumed that a military messiah—a Davidic king—would emerge to restore
Israel to its greatness, it wasn’t the only vision extant. While the Pharisees
expected a Davidic monarch/messiah (and thus most opposed the Hasmonean
dynasty), the Qumran community/Essenes explored the idea of the expected
messiah to be understood in terms of Second Isaiah’s suffering servant. This is
important because this vision has connections with the vision embraced by Jesus.
This chapter is essential reading if we are to understand Jesus’s message and
mission and the way some Jews might embrace his vision.
From Qumran, we move in chapter 10
to the expectations on the part of the Pharisees regarding the imminent
appearance of the Messiah. They differed from the Essenes in that they
envisioned to coming of a Messiah who would liberate the land. Not
surprisingly, they were the most popular faction in Jewish life because they were
seen as being the ones who would guide the people in living holy lives in anticipation
of the coming blessings of God. It is this Davidic expectation that led them to
serve as critics of the Hasmonean dynasty after the Hasmoneans embraced
kingship (the Hasmoneans were a priestly family and not of the Davidic line).
The key here is that they, unlike the Sadducees, did expect a messiah and thus
were more receptive to Jesus' vision.
After all of these twists and turns
that help us understand both the development of messianic ideas (and rejection
of them) as well as the development of the doctrine of the resurrection (and
the rejection of that doctrine), we come to Jesus and his messianic vision and
his embrace of resurrection. In developing his view of Jesus’ role in all this,
Knohl leans largely on Mark though he occasionally references Matthew and Luke.
He notes how Jesus saw himself as a suffering messiah and how that did not fit
the Pharisaic expectation. At the same time, Jesus’ vision had its roots in the
same ethos as that of the Pharisees (along with the Essenes). Having set up
Jesus’ self-understandings in chapter 11, we turn in chapter 12 to Jesus’ trial.
Knohl makes it clear that this affair involved only members of the Sadducean
party, who were protective of the Temple and had a governing partnership with
the Roman authorities while rejecting messianic ideas. Therefore, based on several
points, the Sadducees were unreceptive to Jesus and his movement. He wants us
to understand that had the Pharisees been in charge of the trial, Jesus would
have been set free. In making this revelation, Knohl hopes that through this
book, he can provide a foundation for better Christian-Jewish relations, especially
one that allows for a conversation about Jesus. As a Christian, I would welcome
that opportunity.
Ultimately the point here is that
the trial of Jesus should not be a point of contention between Jews and
Christians. His death reflects an inter-Jewish debate over whether or not a
messiah should be expected and whether Jesus fits the expectation. In Knohl’s
opinion, Jesus could have fit the expectations of at least some Jews,
especially the Essenes but also many Pharisees. In my estimation, this book
really is a gift to those of us who wish to pursue Jewish-Christian dialog that
allows for a conversation about Jesus. His book also helps us read the New
Testament and its descriptions of the various religious parties and their
interactions with early Christians. As such, The Messiah Confrontation offers
us a helpful guide to the roots of Jesus' own sense of calling and purpose, while
allowing us to embrace the Jewish roots of the Christian faith more fully
(especially the Pharisaic ones to rehabilitate the Pharisees in the eyes of
Christians). All in all, this is a most intriguing book that I hope will be
read by many—both Jews and Christians! I believe it will open the eyes of many
to our Christian roots while perhaps helping our Jewish friends reclaim Jesus
as one of their own.
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